The 2016 Turkish Coup Attempt

What is the Turkish Coup?

Turkey, a country historically associated with numerous coups, experienced its first attempted coup in nearly twenty years. On July 15, 2016, a coup d’état was attempted in Turkey by factions within the Turkish Armed Forces. It was revealed that the attempted coup was executed by an organization that dubbed themselves the Peace at Home Council, composed of a minority of the Turkish military force, citing democratically-elected President Erdogan’s recent shift to Islamic policy, contrary to Turkey’s secularism. The organization attempted to take control of key state institutions in Ankara and Istanbul through the bombing of government buildings like the Turkish Parliament and Presidential Palace, as well as occupying Taksim Square in Istanbul. Within a few hours of the coup, President Erdogan responded on his mobile phone to CNN Turk with a call to his supporters to “take to the streets against the uprising” and ordered for a no-fly zone over Ankara (“Turkish President”, 2016). Due to the lack of public support and military backing, the Turkish Armed Forces were swiftly neutralized by the large numbers of pro-government masses. As a result of the failed coup, more than 300 people were killed and 2,100 injured (Ward, 2016). Despite the early surrender of the involved military sect, the Turkish government has detained more than 40,000 people and arrested more than 20,000 since July 15 for suspected loyalty to Fethullah Gulen, the alleged organizer of the coup, leading to a mass purge (Kennedy, 2016). Despite the release of all but 5,187 of the original detainees, nearly 80,000 educators and civil servants have been suspended with more than 5,000 dismissed, and Amnesty International reports some of those detained have been subject to torture and rape (Hanna & Hume, 2016). The aftermath of the failed coup raises questions about the Turkish government’s role in the republic and their response to countries within NATO and the EU.

Photo of Fethullah Gulen   Source: http://a57.foxnews.com/images.foxnews.com/content/fox-news/world/2016/07/17/erdogan-calls-on-us-to-extradite-pennsylvania-based-cleric-after-failed-turkey-coup/_jcr_content/par/featured-media/media-0.img.jpg/876/493/1468655679021.jpg?ve=1&tl=1

What prompted the coup?  

Turkey’s path to democracy began in 1922, when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, a Turkish revolutionary and the country’s first president, instituted significant reformation for the country’s modernization. However, this path has been tumultuous; there have been numerous attempted coups, the most recent attempt occurring in 1997. These coups have long been due to violent clashes between left and right-wing groups within Turkey’s government, and the military’s vision of itself as the “guardian of Turkish democracy” first introduced by Ataturk (Al Jazeera, 2016). The president heavily blamed this particular coup on party sympathizers of Fethullah Gulen. Gulen’s movement is described as “a moderate, pro-Western brand of Sunni Islam that appeals to many well-educated and professional Turks” by the New York Times (Bennett, 2014). On the other hand, the “Peace Council” released a statement referencing Erdogan’s apparent role in the decline of democracy in Turkey as their motivation. This dissatisfaction within the Turkish Armed Forces over President Erdogan and his government’s move towards a larger role for Islam in public life and therefore, a less secular, less democratic government, accounted for the Peace Council’s actions. This event has been largely defined as a military movement for the defense of democracy to counteract Erdogan’s prevention of secular progress in Turkey. Although the coup failed, the aftermath of the attempted takeover has raised many questions regarding the fate of Turkey’s democracy and the stability of Erdogan’s regime, both domestically and internationally.

Demonstrators in Taksim Square, Istanbul

Source: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-18/people-demonstrate-in-front-of-the-republic-monument-turkey/7639472

What is the global impact of Turkey’s failed coup?

National implications of Turkey's coup have already become apparent. This event has been largely defined by the state's support of a narrative that portrays the event as an Islamist movement for the defense of democracy. This is a rupture with the country’s secular past that began under Kemal Ataturk. The popular resistance to the coup and Erdogan’s public discourse have led to a period of relative national cohesion, and the consolidation of the president's control of the state. However, many have been excluded from this new idea of cohesion, notably the numerous civilians and intellectuals that were incarcerated in the aftermath of the coup. When discussing the international repercussions of the coup, Turkey's role as a NATO member comes into play, as well as the international implications of this partnership, which remains a definitive factor in shaping Turkey’s foreign policy. In the wake of the coup and the convergence of power in the figure of President Erdogan, his anti-western policies and authoritarian rule have become center stage issues within NATO and EU discussions (Ward, 2016). The state crackdown and arbitrary arrests, which have even been defined as a political purge of governmental opposition, caused concerns in the international community, particularly Amnesty International. Nevertheless, the United States has restated its support for the legitimate rule of the elected Turkish government. Furthermore, the instability of Turkish politics is seen as a threat to the cohesion of NATO's military front, and may hinder operations against ISIS militias and heighten regional instability.

As Turkey strives to come to terms with what may be the consolidation of a new era in its national identity and domestic politics, it must face the implications of the actions that arose in response to the coup, and how these mass detainments and new policies affect civil liberties. Today, the country faces the challenge of rebuilding national unity, while managing the breaks within civil society. In addition, as ISIS forces advance towards Turkish borders, and the concerns of Western powers towards President Erdogan's government become more apparent, Turkey's need for stability predominantly grows in criticality and urgency.

References

Barker, A. (2016, July 18). Turkey divided between secular and Islamist rule. ABC News. Retrieved September 17, 2016, from

   http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-18/turkey-coup-attempt-shows-division-over-wish-for-islamist-rule/7639292

Hanna, J., & Hume, T. (2016, July 27). Turkey detainees tortured, raped after failed coup, group says. CNN. Retrieved September 17, 2016, from http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/26/europe/turkey-coup-attempt-aftermath/

Kennedy, M. (2016, August 20). A Month After Turkey's Failed Coup, Taking Stock Of A Sweeping Purge. NPR. Retrieved September 17, 2016, from

http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/08/20/490677989/a-month-after-turkeys-failed-coup-taking-stock-of-a-sweeping-purge

Krastev, I. (2016). Can a Post-Coup Turkey Get Along with Europe? NY Times: The Opinion Pages. Retrieved September 17, 2016.from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/17/opinion/can-a-post-coup-turkey-get-along-with-europe.html

La Porte, A., Watson, I., & Tuysuz, G. (2016, July 16). Fethullah Gulen: The man blamed for coup attempt in Turkey. CNN. Retrieved September 18, 2016, from http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/16/middleeast/fethullah-gulen-profile/index.html

Timeline: A history of Turkish coups. (2016, July 15). Al Jazeera.  Retrieved September 17, 2016, from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2012/04/20124472814687973.html

Torun, K. (2016, July 22). Turkey coup attempt: What happened that night? Al Jazeera. Retrieved September 18, 2016, from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/07/turkey-coup-attempt-happened-night-160721132018415.html

Turkey's coup attempt: What you need to know. (2016, July 17). BBC. Retrieved September 17, 2016, from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36816045

Turkish President Erdogan appears in Istanbul to denounce army coup attempt. (2016, July 16). BBC. Retrieved September 17, 2016, from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36809083

Ward, B. (2016, August 03). The Government Response to Turkey's Coup Is an Affront to Democracy. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved September 17, 2016, from https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/08/03/government-response-turkeys-coup-affront-democracy

Yeginsu, C. (2016, August 23). After Failed Coup, Turkey Enjoys a Rare Period of Unity. NY Times. Retrieved September 18, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/24/world/europe/after-failed-coup-turkey-settles-into-a-rare-period-of-unity.html

Group Members: Claire Acree, Grace Hale, Safya Osman, Ester Brito Ruiz, Jori Vajretti 

Relations Between Cuba and the United States

What are the US and Cuba relations?

By: Mariah Hall, Angelica Becker, Cassie Murphey, Dominic Rubio, and Becky Fisk

Cuba and the United States have a had a rocky relationship, to put it lightly, for many years. This began when Cuban dictator, Fidel Castro began taxing American products heavily and then proceeded to let the Soviet Union build a missile bases in Cuba while they were at war with the U.S. The United States and Cuba had completely severed diplomatic relations in 1961. After decades of embargos and isolation, Cuba still has not been able to return to its former prosperity. President Obama is trying to change this situation. On April 11, 2015, President Obama met Raul Castro, brother of former dictator Fidel, at the summit of the Americas in Panama. This was the first meeting between the United States and Cuban leaders since 1961. Later in March of 2016, Obama and his family went to Cuba. This is the first time a President of the United States has stepped on Cuban soil during Presidency since Calvin Coolidge in 1928. Obama has said that "Neither the American nor the Cuban people are well-served by a rigid policy that's rooted in events that took place before most of us were born." Obama believes that it is time to try something new, and only time will tell if he’s right.

Raul Castro and Barack Obama ahead of meeting at U.N. Headquarters in New York City.

http://www.telesurtv.net/english/news/Obama-Makes-It-Official-Hes-Going-to-Cuba-20160218-0001.html

What made the relations turn sour?

The governments of the United States and Cuba began interacting in the 1850s, with pro-slavery Americans pushing for either the purchase or forced conquest of Cuba from Spain, while anti-slavery sentiments advocated against this form of imperialism. These opposing interests were once again reignited with the Spanish American War, in which the U.S. backed a Cuban uprising against the Spanish that was successful. Technically, Cuba was an independent state, but the U.S. treated it as essentially a protectorate. This meant that the U.S. still had a hand in Cuban foreign policy and the right to interfere in their affairs as outlines by the Platt amendment. These interventions, often military in practice, happened multiple times in the subsequent decades, both in 1906 and 1917, usually in order to safeguard their economic interest in sugar imports  under the fronts of needing to solve “political crises.” In 1933, a Cuban uprising led the establishment of a democracy, despite no support from the U.S., who stayed neutral in the conflict. However, this progress was halted by Fulgencio Batista, an authoritarian dictator who seized power through a coup in 1952, revoking the Constitution and oppressing the people.

However, the real narrative of the tumultous tensions between the U.S. and Cuba begins in 1959. This was the year that Fidel Castro, along with a band of radicalized peasants and Che Guevara overthrew the government of General Fulgencio Batista. During this time, Castro had decidedly nationalist tendencies, which were not necessarily Communist. During the early years of his consolidation of power, the U.S. government generally supported Castro as a welcome relief from the corrupt Batista regime. However, later in 1960, the United States and Cuba were in conflict over trade agreements and tariffs. To remedy this issue, Eisenhower tried to limit trade by only allowing food and medical supplies as exports. However, Castro decided that this was insufficient, and thus began to seek out trade with the Soviet Union. Because of the extreme animosity and polarization of the Cold War, the relationship between the U.S. and Cuba fell apart, and officially ended in 1962 when President John F. Kennedy issued a permanent trade embargo. With this embargo, the U.S. officially cemented themselves against Cuba. In the bipolar Cold War, this pushed the Cubans in full alliance with the Soviets.

Cubans lining up outside of the United States embassy in Cuba hoping to get visas. This was 48 hours before the US shutdown the embassy and severed relations with Cuba.

https://www.yahoo.com/news/ap-us-breaks-relations-cuba-015809158.html?ref=gs

Why does this matter?

The governments of the United States and Cuba began interacting in the 1850s, with pro-slavery Americans pushing for either the purchase or forced conquest of Cuba from Spain, while anti-slavery sentiments advocated against this form of imperialism. These opposing interests were once again reignited with the Spanish American War, in which the U.S. backed a Cuban uprising against the Spanish that was successful. Technically, Cuba was an independent state, but the U.S. treated it as essentially a protectorate. This meant that the U.S. still had a hand in Cuban foreign policy and the right to interfere in their affairs as outlined by the Platt amendment. These interventions, often military in practice, happened multiple times in the subsequent decades, both in 1906 and 1917, usually in order to safeguard their economic interest in sugar imports  under the fronts of needing to solve “political crises.” In 1933, a Cuban uprising led the establishment of a democracy, despite no support from the U.S., who stayed neutral in the conflict. However, this progress was halted by Fulgencio Batista, an authoritarian dictator who seized power through a coup in 1952, revoking the Constitution and oppressing the people.  

However, the real narrative of the tumultuous tensions between the U.S. and Cuba begins in 1959. This was the year that Fidel Castro, along with a band of radicalized peasants and Che Guevara overthrew the government of General Fulgencio Batista. During this time, Castro had decidedly nationalist tendencies, which were not necessarily Communist. During the early years of his consolidation of power, the U.S. government generally supported Castro as a welcome relief from the corrupt Batista regime. However, later in 1960, the United States and Cuba were in conflict over trade agreements and tariffs. To remedy this issue, Eisenhower tried to limit trade by only allowing food and medical supplies as exports. However, Castro decided that this was insufficient, and thus began to seek out trade with the Soviet Union. Because of the extreme animosity and polarization of the Cold War, the relationship between the U.S. and Cuba fell apart, and officially ended in 1962 when President John F. Kennedy issued a permanent trade embargo. With this embargo, the U.S. officially cemented themselves against Cuba. In the bipolar Cold War, this pushed the Cubans in full alliance with the Soviets.

After a while, things settled down, but in the 1980s, new developments brought new conflict. Castro began allowing people to leave the island for the first time, prompting mass migration to Florida, where a growing population of Cuban dissidents began to extend an influence on American politics. Although Florida had accepted its fair share of Cuban refugees and exiles prior to Castro’s change of heart, this demographic surge was transformative for establishing a political platform to advocate the views of the dissidents. These generation that followed would be known as ABCs, or American-Born Cubans. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, relations were still unable to be normalized despite agreement from both Clinton and Castro. The public sentiment, especially that of older Cuban Americans, was staunchly anti-Castro, while ABCs still hoped to someday return home. After Cuba’s shooting of two private planes chartered by Cuban-American activists, Clinton ended attempts to normalize relations. When Raul Castro, Fidel’s brother, assumed control in 2008, he seemed to have provided a more progressive mindset in Cuba, which led to increased possibilities for normalizing of relations. After meetings between Pope Francis, Raul Castro, and Obama in 2013, these possibilities started to become realized.

Despite the complicated history between the U.S. and Cuba, or perhaps because of it, Cuba remains relevant today. The normalization of the relations between the two countries reflects the continuing fall of Cold War Era hostilities. This hostility that existed between the two countries, especially the strengthening of those tensions that happened after the Cuban Missile Crisis, served as a prominent reminder of Cold War troubles. The normalization of relations reflects the desire to reopen trade, and thus essentially bury the hatchet between the two countries. Moreover, the fact that Cuba is now more open to the influences of global commerce, including tourism, the state will prove to be a fascinating case study in the effects of isolation in a globalized world. Because of Cuba’s isolation from global oil and natural gas, they were forced into developing more sustainable and home-grown methods of energy. While their comparative environmental sustainability is in part due to lower standards of living, it stills serves as an interesting model for the impact of globalization on the environment. With the normalization of U.S./Cuba relations, the state will prove to serve as an interesting yardstick to compare the rest of the world with going forward.

Sources Cited:

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Gomez, Alan. "One Year Later: What's Changed -- and What Hasn't -- in U.S.-Cuba Relations." USA Today. Gannett, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/12/15/cuba-us-one-year-anniversary-diplomatic-relations-whats-changed/77085846/>.

History.com Staff. "Cuban Missile Crisis." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2010. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis>.

Hoff, Rhoda, and Margaret Regler. Uneasy Neighbors: Cuba and the United States. New York: F. Watts, 1997. Print.

Jaffe, Alexandra, and Elise Labott. "U.S. Reaches Landmark Deal with Cuba." WPTV. N.p., 17 Dec. 2014. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <http://www.wptv.com/news/world/alan-gross-cuba-frees-us-citizen>.

Kim, Susanna. "Here's What Happened the Last Time a US President Visited Cuba." ABC News. ABC News Network, 21 Mar. 2016. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <http://abcnews.go.com/International/happened-time-us-president-visited-cuba/story?id=27689730>.

"Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/kennan>.

"Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian." U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine>.

Mitchell, Andrea, and Mcclam Erin. "Cuba Frees American Alan Gross, Held for Five Years." NBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/cuba-frees-american-alan-gross-held-five-years-n269926>.

Rhodes, James Ford, and Allan Nevins. History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1966. Print.

Russell   |  , By Shawndra. "Cuba History: What Is the Teller Amendment?" Newsmax. N.p., 18 Feb. 2016. Web. 13 Sept. 2016. <http://www.newsmax.com/FastFeatures/cuba-history-teller-amendment/2016/02/18/id/715055/>.

Suddath, Claire. "U.S.-Cuba Relations." Time. Time Inc., 15 Apr. 2009. Web. 12 Oct. 2016. <http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1891359,00.html>.

A Refugee "Crisis": Where Are Migrants Fleeing From and Why?

By Elizabeth Johnson, Tyler Rydeen, Hayley Bosworth, and Valeria Ballestros

Heredia, N. (2015). Misreading the refugee crisis [Digital Image]. Gulf News.

A “crisis” as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary is “a difficult or dangerous situation that needs serious attention” or “an unstable or crucial time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending.” It is important to define what a “crisis” truly is in relation to the refugee situation stemming from the Middle East and East Africa. For many, the term “crisis” attached to the refugee situation is in response to the European Union’s reaction to the influx of immigrants from conflict-ravaged regions. Rather, the addition of “crisis” to the mass migration of refugees should be in regard to the situations in which they are escaping - the difficult times in which they live. These refugees are fleeing nations under siege and struggle; nations such as Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq in the Middle East and Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea in Northern Africa. In the following posts, we will discuss in further depth where these refugees are fleeing from, and why they are seeking asylum. Here, we will give you a brief introduction on how this crisis came about, and what implications it may have on the rest of the world.

The refugee “crisis” in the Middle East mainly involves refugees fleeing conflict in Syria, but also includes a significant amount of people fleeing other countries, mainly Afghanistan, Iraq, Kosovo, and others. Syrian refugees make up the majority of displacement, with over million people being displaced since what can be marked as the beginning of this “crisis.” The Arab Spring, which began in December of 2010, was a series of uprisings in Middle Eastern and North African countries, beginning in Tunisia, where a young street vendor set himself on fire, in protest of difficult economic situations and issues with an autocratic and corrupt government, not only in Tunisia but in other countries such as Egypt, Yemen, Libya, and Syria (Botelho, 2015). (** ^ really long sentence) In the case of Syria, many people assembled and protested peacefully. However, things changed when 15 boys were arrested and tortured in Syria for graffiti that supported the Arab Spring movement. A 13 year-old who was among those arrested was killed after being tortured. The government attempted to crush these protests by killing and arresting many of the protestors. Military personnel in Syria proceeded to defect from the government, and form the Free Syrian Army, aimed at overthrowing the Syrian Government. Conflict between the Free Syrian Army and the Syrian Government led to civil war (“Syria’s Civil War Explained,” 2016). As a result of the civil war, and other conflicts, such as terrorist organizations like ISIS fighting for control in Syria, have ultimately pushed the millions of people out of the country and away from the violence, to European countries, seeking asylum (“Syria Iraq: The Islamic State Militant Group, 2014). Germany and Hungary have taken on many of the refugees, and other countries such as Italy, France, Finland and Sweden have also taken in many refugees.

While Europe struggles under the pressure of sustaining the mass influx of Syrian and Iraqi refugees, the dire need of aid for African refugees goes unnoticed. BBC’s "Map of the European Migrant Crisis" lists the most common ethnicity of Europe’s asylum seekers; among the top ten include Nigeria and Eritrea. Nigeria, a country notably more recognized than its partner, Eritrea, rests in West Africa, while Eritrea struggles along the eastern coast. Emigrants of Nigeria are fleeing the oppression of a governing jihadist group: Boko Haram, who have claimed large territories in the northern desert of the country. Although ISIS has created the brand as the most fearsome and ruthless extremist group in the media, it is important to remember that it is not the only evil. Boko Haram, in fact, began its active pledge to jihad much earlier than the Islamic State did. In 2014, Boko Haram exceeded ISIS’ death toll by over 600 (Taylor, 2015). Nigeria’s acting government has lost power as Boko Haram gained in reputation. Although Nigeria has not yet been deemed a failed state, the ruling government falls under the United Nation’s Responsibility to Protect a state that is either “unable or unwilling to protect their populations from mass atrocities” (Notaras & Popovsky, 2011). Many remember First Lady of the United States, Michelle Obama leading the Twitter campaign #BringBackOurGirls in an attempt to raise awareness of the kidnapping of two hundred school girls by the extremist group, whose name means "Western education is a sin" (Taylor, 2014) (Who, What, Why: Exactly what does the phrase Boko Haram mean?, 2014). The horrors of the underdeveloped world, creating the “crisis” in westernized Europe, cause global hurt, and will continue to do so until the world arrives at peace. The painful irony of the refugee crisis in Europe is that the European colonial powers are, in essence, responsible for the catastrophe in their former colonies.

Refugees sought asylum and shelter in neighboring countries such as Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq, Egypt and Jordan while countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, UAE and Bahrain refused the entrance to refugees. Basic resources became so scarce that refugees had to seek asylum even further, heading to countries in Europe. Little did everyone know that the European Union was not economically prepared for such a catastrophe. The Dublin Regulation states that a refugee must stay in the state he/she has arrived to first. To ensure that people do not seek asylum in various countries and also to ensure that governments do not ignore asylum seekers (“Europe”). Furthermore, Britain decided to leave the European Union, also known as Brexit, mostly to stop the influx of refugees. This issue took place during the summer of 2016 making top news worldwide. Prime Minister David Cameron says he wants, “more controls on immigration from new member states, limits on benefits for immigration, more powers for national parliaments to block EU legislation, less red tape, faster trade deals, power returned to member states and an end to ever closer union (Irwin, 2015, p.7).” Additionally, the European Union came to an agreement with Turkey which states that refugees seeking asylum in Greece are to be sent back; in hopes of easing the migrant crisis through the use of the Aegean sea. The agreement states that, in return, Turkey will receive $6.6 billion for organizations who look after the migrants plus visa-free travel and a possible restart to Turkey’s membership in the European Union  (Kanter, 2016). This agreement was made in response to Angela Merkel’s decision to accept as many refugees as possible and scatter them through Europe. Not only does this not solve the so-called crisis, it denies hundreds of thousands their human right to life and their right to asylum.

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unrest [Newsgroup post]. Retrieved from Cable News Network website:

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Brexit and the European Union

By Sarah Benewith, Hannah Grayson, Pippa Walton, Gretchen Roderick, & Emma Endres

In the past 30 years, there have arguably been three major historical events with widespread international consequences: the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001, and Brexit just this past summer. While the effects of the Berlin Wall and 9/11 have long been felt and analyzed, Brexit has left the world in somewhat of a panic.

What is Brexit? What is the European Union?
          Brexit, an abbreviation for “British exit”, refers to the British referendum on June 23, 2016 in which British citizens voted to leave the European Union. It was immediately evident that Brexit would drastically change Britain. Not only did the statistical results highlight how divided the county was, but the major pro-Brexit political parties all changed leadership; this included the resignation of the Prime Minister (“How divided”, 2016). However, the effects of Brexit on the European Union (EU) remain uncertain. After the initial shock of Brexit and the surge of people googling “What is the EU?”, the world began to consider what would happen next to the European Union.

British demonstrators in an anti-Brexit protest

        The idea of a structure like the European Union came about following the social and economic catastrophes of World War I and World War II, when the Allied powers in Europe sought a structure that would promote economic cooperation and more specifically prevent France and Germany from future disputes. They hoped that this economic cooperation would eventually lead to political cooperation. Starting with smaller, less invasive economic agreements, the states of the European Community slowly built up to the overarching structure now known as the European Union. The EU has effectively tied the continent together, based on the concept of economic interdependence. The countries who signed the Schengen Agreement, which does not include the UK, have open borders (allowing free travel between states), charge no tariffs or duties on traded goods, and impose high tariffs on goods imported from outside the EU. It is simple and effective to travel between countries and to access a larger market for goods, promoting expansion; if one country profits, so do the rest (“European Union,” 2014).

What are the causes of Brexit?
          Immediately following the UK's introduction into the European Union in the 1970s, there has been constant opposition to the membership among the British public and various British governments. This partially stems from the UK’s history of being strongly independent and being the least integrated into continental Europe. Historically, the UK has been isolated from the rest of Europe both religiously, exemplified by England’s own established church, and geographically, since the UK is a group of islands. Additionally, many British media sources have showed an anti-EU bias ever since the UK joined, demonstrating that propaganda (like Brexit: The Movie) potentially influenced public opinion. Moreover, it was politicians who took the lead in promoting Brexit, hoping for personal gain. Thus, a plethora of pro-Brexit campaigns came about. Several British public and political figures were influential in saying that economically, the UK did not need the EU, citing that Britain has the second largest economy in the EU and that Britain uses the pound, not the euro, as currency. Additionally, there was no strong counter argument made about the benefits of the EU, which may have changed public opinion. This is exemplified by the Scottish National Party’s pro-EU campaign, which led Scotland to vote 62% to remain in the EU (“EU Referendum Results,” n.d.). Overall, the lack of trust in the EU caused public discontent in the UK. This dissatisfaction led the former Prime Minister David Cameron to promise the public, with the personal intention of being re-elected, a referendum vote on leaving the European Union, the “Brexit” we now know. 

What does this mean for the EU?
          Since the implementation of the EU in the 1990s, and through the introduction of the euro, this union has been highly successful. However, the economic crisis of 2008 in the United States had impacts across the Atlantic, and the Eurozone suffered. Greece’s economy crashed, leading to a huge recession, and the entire EU has been trying to save the country before the euro collapses and the system falls apart. Since 2010, multiple countries have considered ceding from the EU, Great Britain is the first to officially do so. The Vote Leave campaign (in favor of Brexit), which, among other things, claimed that Great Britain sent 50 million pounds a day to the EU, and that after leaving the EU the government would donate 350 million pounds to the National Health Service a week (Travis, 2016). These claims were quickly proven to be false after the referendum, but they still convinced the public that leaving the EU was an economically sound idea. Before the referendum was even over, the value of the British pound dropped from $1.47 to $1.37, the greatest drop in history, and currently stands at $1.30 (Soffen, 2016). By the morning after the referendum, both domestic and international investors pulled their money out of the stock market. Without membership of the EU, Britain will no longer be able to enjoy duty free trade, and therefore will have to pay tariffs on all imported goods. While nothing has been confirmed, the U.K. is attempting to exit the union as quickly as possible; more official jurisdiction will arise as more summits are held. In some ways, Brexit has assisted a small sector of the economy: more foreigners are planning vacations and buying British goods before Brexit is put into action. However, for the population of the UK, travel has become far more expensive and the cost of living is going to rise. For the remaining members of the EU, the next few years will be instrumental in terms of the resulting economy of the union.

          Along with the important economic consequences of Brexit, it is also very important to discuss the social and political impact that the referendum will have on the United Kingdom, Europe, and the rest of the world. Socially speaking, the people of Great Britain have become divided, not only from Europe but from each other as well. Tensions are rising between the nations that make up the UK, especially those who voted overwhelmingly to remain part of the EU. Now both Scotland, where 62% voted Remain and Northern Ireland, where 56% voted Remain, are in the spotlight concerning possible referendums of their own (“EU Referendum Results,” n.d.). Also, the youth who voted in are now at odds with the older generations who voted out, resulting in ageism in the country on both sides, and hate crimes have been reported to have gone up by 57% due to rising dissent towards refugees and the Arab population (“How divided,” 2016). Politically, the main issue present is that of immigration and of the refugee crisis. Once Britain is officially no longer a part of the European Union, workers from neighboring countries will possibly have to apply for work permits, as opposed to a “points-based” system of immigration, and students studying abroad will possibly have a much harder time going to school in the UK. These measures, among others, are put in place to curb immigration into the country, an issue that prompted many to vote out of the EU. However, this will also impede Brits attempting to move out of the country and into the EU, like the 1.2 million Brits currently living abroad in the EU. Still, it is clear the Brexit is a turning point in Europe; the social, political, and economic circumstances of the continent remain up in the air.

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